In May 1857, native elements of the British forces in India turned on their commanders in the first stages of a bloody rebellion that would be declared officially over only in July 1859. But the story of the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857 is more than just a military adventure. Rather, it is the tale of a major turning point in the history of Britain's occupation of India and, for some, marks the beginning of the nationalist movement in that country.
There had been a British presence in India since the early 17th century but formal rule did not begin until after 1757 when Sir Robert Clive led a victory over the Nawab of Bengal and French forces at the Battle of Plassey. Clive was a representative of the East India Company and it was the Company rather than the British Crown that took charge. And this was the state of affairs in 1857.
The East India Company had virtually free rein. It was allowed to have its own armies (although some Crown forces were present) and was allowed to rule in its own way. This led to economic exploitation and local dissatisfaction with Company policies.
The situation was aggravated by the appointment of Lord Dalhousie as Governor-General in 1848. He had a vision of transforming India into a modern country with roads and railways and progressive laws, but he seemingly had little regard for local traditions. In his eight years in office, he was highly successful but it was these very policies that were to act as the catalyst for the events of 1857.
The Indian people suffered considerable economic exploitation. Craftsmen and artisans lost business as cheap imports from Britain flooded the marketplace making life extremely difficult. And no one could avoid the massive financial burden that was caused by the tariffs and taxes imposed by the Company.
Two policies aggravated the ruling classes in particular. The Doctrine of Lapse meant that only the natural descendants of the Indian ruling classes could assume their rank. Adopted children could retain the family wealth but not the role of ruler. There was also the Subsidiary Alliance. Rulers had to submit to an agreement to allow Company troops to be stationed on their territory and finance them. The Company was to be acknowledged as the supreme ruling power with any failure to pay certain dues would result in the forfeiture of land to the Company.
Discontent also arose as the result of the introduction of social reforms. Fears that their religion was being undermined by Christianity led to Indians of all faiths to unite in the face of a common enemy. And changes promoting education for women, permitting widows to marry again and the banning of sati fostered resentment.
Discontent was also rampant in some military units. Local soldiers received less pay, had little prospect of promotion and were treated poorly by some of their British comrades. They were also angered because they were not permitted to wear traditional marks indicating their caste or sect.
Against this background, the smallest incident could have sparked rebellion. In fact, it was precipitated by the introduction of the new Enfield rifle that used a cartridge with a greased paper cover that needed to be bitten off before loading. The grease was originally made from animal fat - specifically pig and cow - which was offensive to Muslims and Hindus who regarded these animals as sacred. Too late, the grease was replaced with vegetable fat.
In late March, 1857 Mangal Pandey, a sepoy of the 34th Bengal Native Infantry, attacked his British officers after refusing to handle the new cartridges. He was subdued by other native soldiers but chose to shoot himself after breaking free. Surviving the wound, he died at the end of the executioner's rope.
The following month, native soldiers at the Meerut barracks were severely punished for refusing to use the new cartridges. On 10 May, their comrades rose in revolt, rescued them and killed several British officers. Next day, they captured Delhi and announced that Bahadur Shah Zafar, a former Mughal emperor, was now Emperor of all India.
Surprised and bound by red tape, the British were slow to respond giving the rebellion time to spread. Atrocities committed by both sides fuelled hatred. The British were particularly incensed by the massacre of more than a hundred women and children at Kanpur (then called Cawnpore), a tragedy that resulted in retaliatory actions by British troops. The British, however, were able to regroup and, with help from loyal native soldiers and British reinforcements quelled the rebellion.
In reality, overall British control was never at risk. Most native troops stayed loyal and the mutiny was restricted to the northern parts of the country. Infighting, lack of unified leadership and different agendas among the mutineers also contributed to the rebels' defeat.
With India once more at peace, the British Government in London took control of the country from the East India Company. Larger numbers of Crown troops were posted to India and comparative numbers of native troops were restricted. The policies of Subsidiary Alliance and Doctrine of Lapse were removed. In addition, the sensibilities of all Indians were recognized as guarantees to protect their religions and traditions were implemented.
The new attitude was to bear fruit in the ensuing years. The old, once mutually independent states slowly merged to create a unified nation. Improvements in education and communications resulted in the modernization of the country laying the foundations for a new India. There was less discrimination and more Indians were able to progress through the ranks of government. In the eyes of many, the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857 marked the beginnings of Indian nationalism that was to result in independence in 1947.
There had been a British presence in India since the early 17th century but formal rule did not begin until after 1757 when Sir Robert Clive led a victory over the Nawab of Bengal and French forces at the Battle of Plassey. Clive was a representative of the East India Company and it was the Company rather than the British Crown that took charge. And this was the state of affairs in 1857.
The East India Company had virtually free rein. It was allowed to have its own armies (although some Crown forces were present) and was allowed to rule in its own way. This led to economic exploitation and local dissatisfaction with Company policies.
The situation was aggravated by the appointment of Lord Dalhousie as Governor-General in 1848. He had a vision of transforming India into a modern country with roads and railways and progressive laws, but he seemingly had little regard for local traditions. In his eight years in office, he was highly successful but it was these very policies that were to act as the catalyst for the events of 1857.
The Indian people suffered considerable economic exploitation. Craftsmen and artisans lost business as cheap imports from Britain flooded the marketplace making life extremely difficult. And no one could avoid the massive financial burden that was caused by the tariffs and taxes imposed by the Company.
Two policies aggravated the ruling classes in particular. The Doctrine of Lapse meant that only the natural descendants of the Indian ruling classes could assume their rank. Adopted children could retain the family wealth but not the role of ruler. There was also the Subsidiary Alliance. Rulers had to submit to an agreement to allow Company troops to be stationed on their territory and finance them. The Company was to be acknowledged as the supreme ruling power with any failure to pay certain dues would result in the forfeiture of land to the Company.
Discontent also arose as the result of the introduction of social reforms. Fears that their religion was being undermined by Christianity led to Indians of all faiths to unite in the face of a common enemy. And changes promoting education for women, permitting widows to marry again and the banning of sati fostered resentment.
Discontent was also rampant in some military units. Local soldiers received less pay, had little prospect of promotion and were treated poorly by some of their British comrades. They were also angered because they were not permitted to wear traditional marks indicating their caste or sect.
Against this background, the smallest incident could have sparked rebellion. In fact, it was precipitated by the introduction of the new Enfield rifle that used a cartridge with a greased paper cover that needed to be bitten off before loading. The grease was originally made from animal fat - specifically pig and cow - which was offensive to Muslims and Hindus who regarded these animals as sacred. Too late, the grease was replaced with vegetable fat.
In late March, 1857 Mangal Pandey, a sepoy of the 34th Bengal Native Infantry, attacked his British officers after refusing to handle the new cartridges. He was subdued by other native soldiers but chose to shoot himself after breaking free. Surviving the wound, he died at the end of the executioner's rope.
The following month, native soldiers at the Meerut barracks were severely punished for refusing to use the new cartridges. On 10 May, their comrades rose in revolt, rescued them and killed several British officers. Next day, they captured Delhi and announced that Bahadur Shah Zafar, a former Mughal emperor, was now Emperor of all India.
Surprised and bound by red tape, the British were slow to respond giving the rebellion time to spread. Atrocities committed by both sides fuelled hatred. The British were particularly incensed by the massacre of more than a hundred women and children at Kanpur (then called Cawnpore), a tragedy that resulted in retaliatory actions by British troops. The British, however, were able to regroup and, with help from loyal native soldiers and British reinforcements quelled the rebellion.
In reality, overall British control was never at risk. Most native troops stayed loyal and the mutiny was restricted to the northern parts of the country. Infighting, lack of unified leadership and different agendas among the mutineers also contributed to the rebels' defeat.
With India once more at peace, the British Government in London took control of the country from the East India Company. Larger numbers of Crown troops were posted to India and comparative numbers of native troops were restricted. The policies of Subsidiary Alliance and Doctrine of Lapse were removed. In addition, the sensibilities of all Indians were recognized as guarantees to protect their religions and traditions were implemented.
The new attitude was to bear fruit in the ensuing years. The old, once mutually independent states slowly merged to create a unified nation. Improvements in education and communications resulted in the modernization of the country laying the foundations for a new India. There was less discrimination and more Indians were able to progress through the ranks of government. In the eyes of many, the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857 marked the beginnings of Indian nationalism that was to result in independence in 1947.
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